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Petr Parfenovich Vladimirov (1975). The Vladimirov diaries: Yenan, China, 1942–1945. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-00928-7.
In the 16th century the Portuguese became aware of the lucrative medicinal and recreational trade of opium into China, and from their factories across Asia chose to supply the Canton System, to satisfy both the medicinal and the recreational use of the drug. By 1729 the Yongzheng Emperor had criminalised the new recreational smoking of opium in his empire. Spence, Jonathan (1975), "Opium Smoking in Ch'ing China", in Wakeman Frederic (ed.), Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp.143–173 reprinted in Spence, Jonathan D. (1992). Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0393033554. pp. 250–255 Initially used by medical practitioners to control bodily fluid and preserve qi or vital force, during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the drug also functioned as an aphrodisiac or chunyao ( 春药) as Xu Boling records in his mid-fifteenth century Yingjing Juan:Recreational use of opium was part of a civilized and mannered ritual, akin to an East Asian tea ceremony, prior to the extensive prohibitions that came later. [44] In places of gathering, often tea shops, or a person's home servings of opium were offered as a form of greeting and politeness. Often served with tea (in China) and with specific and fine utensils and beautifully carved wooden pipes. The wealthier the smoker, the finer and more expensive material used in ceremony. [44] The image of seedy underground, destitute smokers were often generated by anti-opium narratives and became a more accurate image of opium use following the effects of large scale opium prohibition in the 1880s. [44] Prohibitions in China [ edit ]
Opium contains 50 different alkaloid opiates. The most common metabolism of opiates is to be ultimately converted to morphine which is further converted to morphine-3,6-diglucuronide. 16 Opioids are metabolized vastly by the enzyme CYP 2D6 and any mutation in this kind of enzyme or coadministration with drugs that interfere with this enzyme may generate a change in the metabolism speed. 18 For years, because of this metabolism pathway, it was very hard to differentiate between illicit heroin users and involuntary exposure to poppy seeds. The original tests for this differentiations were based in the presence of morphine in urine without evidence of 6-monoacetylmorphine. Now it is known the presence of a glucuronide metabolite only in the consumption of heroin called ATM4G and this allows a clear differentiation of the consumption of illegal heroin and poppy seed ingestion. 6 a b Chen, Song-Chuan (1 January 2017). Merchants of War and Peace: British Knowledge of China in the Making of the Opium War. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-988-8390-56-4. JSTOR j.ctt1k3s9gv. Dr Roland Quinault; Dr Ruth Clayton Windscheffel; Mr Roger Swift (July 28, 2013). William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp.238–. ISBN 978-1-4094-8327-4. One reason for the increase in opiate consumption in the United States during the 19th century was the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacists to women with "female complaints" (mostly to relieve menstrual pain and hysteria). [34] Because opiates were viewed as more humane than punishment or restraint, they were often used to treat the mentally ill. Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States in the late 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women. [37] a b Rewriting history, A response to the 2008 World Drug Report, Transnational Institute, June 2008
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Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early 19th century. However, by 1861, Wang Tao wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold. [47] Though opium yields vary based on growing conditions, 2.5 acres (1 hectare) of poppies typically produce between 17.6 and 33 lbs. (8 to 15 kilograms) of raw opium, according to the book " Opium: A History" (St. Martin's Griffin, 1999). Estimated yields of heroin from raw opium are between 6 percent and 10 percent. Thus, the acre of poppies found in North Carolina would yield a little more than 13 lbs. (6 kg) of raw opium and 1.3 lbs. (0.6 kg) of heroin in a full growing season in the best of circumstances. Kiple, Kenneth F. (2007). A Movable Feast: Ten Millennia of Food Globalization. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511512148. ISBN 978-0-521-79353-7. OL 5367545W. Wikidata Q111679724. Felbab-Brown, Vanda (2009). "The Political Economy of Illegal Domains in India and China". The International Lawyer. 43 (4): 1411–1428. ISSN 0020-7810. JSTOR 40708079. But although opium poppy provided a source of funding for Mao's opponents, and although ideologically it was an anathema to him, Mao too did not attempt to interfere with the poppy economy during his insurgency years. Large segments of the population were dependent upon the poppy economy, and Mao was in turn in need of the rural population's support, or at least its tolerance of his anti-Chiang Kai-shek insurgency. Over time, not only did Mao tolerate poppy cultivation, he actually came to tax it as well.
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