Celtic Empire (Dirk Pitt, 25)

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Pausanias (2013). "Description of Greece". livius.org. Translated by Peter Levi. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016 . Retrieved 12 August 2013. In Celtic studies, 'Britons' refers to native speakers of the Brittonic languages in the ancient and medieval periods, "from the first evidence of such speech in the pre-Roman Iron Age, until the central Middle Ages". [2]

In the settlement of 64BC, Galatia became a client-state of the Roman empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled 'tetrarchs') were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and Julius Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia. Celtic troop types and organization [ edit ] Celtic heavy (left) and light (right) infantrymen during Gallic WarsCunliffe, Barry (1997). The Ancient Celts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 80–81. ISBN 0-14-025422-6. Celtic arms and armor were in fact highly advanced, as the Celts were renowned master Iron workers in the Hallstatt, La Tène cultures and in the province of Noricum. The Celts were described by classical writers such as Livy and Florus as fighting as hordes like "wild beasts". Julius Caesar contradicts these sources in his descriptions of battles against Gallic tribes in Commentaries on the Gallic Wars. Caesar speaks of continental Celts fighting in an organized fashion, even forming a Phalanx or Testudo like formation as defense against advancing cavalry. [12] This heavily contrasts the enduring image of the unorganized naked Celtic barbarian as depicted by other Greco-Roman sources. Stiehl, Alexandra (2011). "Die eisenzeitlichen Speerspitzen der "Hünenburg" bei Borchen-Gellinghausen". Archäologie in Westfalen-Lippe (in German): 69–72. doi: 10.11588/aiw.0.0.25923. ISSN 2191-1207.

a b c d e f Prifysgol Cymru, University of Wales, A Detailed Map of Settlements in Galatia, Names and La Tène Material in Anatolia, the Eastern Balkans, and the Pontic Steppes.

In the latter phases of the Hallstatt era, iron began to replace bronze in the manufacture of weapons, and the classic " Celtic sword" with its leaf-bladed design made its appearance. Chariot burials are also characteristic of the period; it is possible that they also served a function in the warfare of this age, but the chariots are four-wheeled vehicles and they do not occur at all in Britain until the La Tène period. [4] Celtic Chieftain's Grave at Hochdorf, Germany Teleaga, Emilian; Bălăşescu, Adrian; Soficaru, Andrei; Schoch, Werner (2014-06-30). "Die Scheiterhaufen aus Cugir und Tarinci. Ein Beitrag zu den Bestattungssitten der Balkanhalbinsel und des vorrömischen Dakiens in der Spätlatènezeit". Praehistorische Zeitschrift (in German). 89 (2): 305–336. doi: 10.1515/pz-2014-0021. ISSN 1613-0804. S2CID 166075687.

The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul against Gallic tribes, lasting from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Romans would also raid Britannia and Germania, but these expeditions never developed into full-scale invasions. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. These wars paved the way for Caesar to become the sole ruler of the Roman Republic. Endemic warfare was a common and significant aspect of life in Celtic societies. However, the organizational structures of these tribes differed widely. Some had rigid hierarchies with ruling monarchies, while others operated with representational structures resembling republics. The Galatians were descended from Celts who had invaded Greece in the 3rd century BC. The original settlers of Galatia came through Thrace under the leadership of Leogarios and Leonnorios c. 278BC. They consisted mainly of three Gaulish tribes, the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii, but there were also other minor tribes. In 25 BC, Galatia became a province of the Roman Empire, with Ankara ( Ancyra) as its capital.This is a list of battles or conflicts in which Celts had a leading or crucial role, including as mercenaries. Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2016). Pax Romana: war, peace, and conquest in the Roman world. New Haven. ISBN 978-0-300-17882-1. OCLC 941874968. {{ cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( link) Celtic influence on Germanic culture is a long debated topic; it is generally accepted that Celtic languages had an impact on Germanic languages; [39] however their impact on Germanic religion, myths [40] and material culture [41] is more difficult to assess. Celtic and Germanic warfare greatly influenced one another due to proximity, competition for territory and due to endemic warfare being a key feature of both cultures. Greco-Roman writers took notice of this competitive cultural relationship during the mass migration around 120–115 BC that set off the Cimbrian War. Celtic and Germanic interaction, competition and influence on each other and cultural diffusion between the two is known to pre-date Greek and Roman awareness of either culture. The Germanic languages borrowed much of their vocabulary related to politics, leadership, iron smithing and medicine from the Celtic languages, such as *rik- ‘king’, *isarna ‘iron’, *ambahtaz ‘servant’, *brunjon- ‘mailshirt’, *lekijaz ‘physician’, *gislaz ‘hostage’, *Rinaz ‘Rhine’, and *walhaz ‘foreigner’. [39] In Denmark, the Wagons from Dejbjerg and the bronze kettle of Sophienborg Mose show huge similarities with the La Tène artistic culture, notably the bull figures on the kettle [42] and the figure of a man on a wagon. As for the weaponry, double-edged La Tène swords found at Værebro and Tissø ( Zealand, Denmark), Vogn ( Hjørring, Denmark) and Lindholmgård ( Scania, Sweden) suggest a likely cultural transfer through local elite. [43] [44] The famous Hjortspring Bog, where a boat and multiple weapons have been found, displays Celtic influence, specifically in the spearheads and the chainmails. [45] In the regions associated with Elbe Germanic groups, double-edged La Tène swords similar to those from Denmark have been found at Großromstedt (Thuringia, Germany). [46] There is a correspondence in the weaponry found in graves at Schkopau and Großromstedt with the description of the Gallic society by Poseidonios, where there is a hierarchy for the warrior's companions, from the shield-bearers to the spear-bearers and finally the chief at the top. [47] The presence of La Tène items in Thuringia could also be due to a growing influence of Przeworsk culture from the east at the end of the 1st century BC. [48] While archaeological discoveries offer valuable insights into the material culture of the Celts, determining the precise nature of their ancient combat techniques remains a topic of speculation. Later, the military position was reversed as the Roman Empire expanded its sphere of influence and gradually conquered most of the Celtic peoples. During this period, both Greek and Roman writers and scholars were heavily biased against the Celts and tended to focus much on the savage ferocity of the fearless, naked, headhunting Celtic warrior, creating an image which has persisted ever since. To the Ancient Greeks and Romans the Celtic warrior was the archetypal barbarian, [85] stereotypically presented as massive, powerful, and malicious.