Taylor, Harold A. (2000). Graphite. Financial Times Executive Commodity Reports. London: Mining Journal Books. ISBN 978-1-84083-332-4. Boardman, John. "The Neolithic-Eneolithic Period" (PDF). The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 3, Part 1. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0521224963. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2013. The graphite is transferred onto the counterbody as well. For all the experiments conducted at 1 GPa, a transfer layer was visible on the counterbody (see Fig. 3 right column). Under low load, only little material transfer was observed overall. This material transfer and thus transfer film formation is in coherence with other graphitic sliding experiments reported in literature 18.

Carbon brushes represent a long-explored graphite application area. There have been few inventions in this area over the last decade, with less than 300 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, very significantly less than between 1992-2011. Marsh, Harry; Reinoso, Francisco Rodríguez (2007). Activated carbon (1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 497–498. ISBN 9780080455969. Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode: 2021MinM...85..291W. doi: 10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.Potential physical / chemical effects: Bulk material is non-combustible. The material may form dust and can accumulate electrostatic charges, which may cause an electrical spark (ignition source). High dust levels may create potential for explosion. Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite. It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for the calibration of scanning probe microscopes. [68] [69] Electrodes edit

During sliding, significant differences in tribological behavior emerge depending on crystal orientation, graphene termination, water density \({\rho }_{{{{{{{{{\rm{H}}}}}}}}}_{2}{{{{{{{\rm{O}}}}}}}}}\), and pressure P. First, we focus on the case P = 1 GPa and \({n}_{{{{{{{{{\rm{H}}}}}}}}}_{2}{{{{{{{\rm{O}}}}}}}}}=16\) corresponding to \({\rho }_{{{{{{{{{\rm{H}}}}}}}}}_{2}{{{{{{{\rm{O}}}}}}}}}=14\,{{{{{{{{\rm{nm}}}}}}}}} Yurkewicz, Katie. "Protecting the LHC from itself" (PDF). Symmetry Magazine. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-10. Kato, Tomofumi; Yamada, Yasuhiro; Nishikawa, Yasushi; Otomo, Toshiya; Sato, Hayato; Sato, Satoshi (2021-07-12). "Origins of peaks of graphitic and pyrrolic nitrogen in N1s X-ray photoelectron spectra of carbon materials: quaternary nitrogen, tertiary amine, or secondary amine?". Journal of Materials Science. 56 (28): 15798–15811. Bibcode: 2021JMatS..5615798K. doi: 10.1007/s10853-021-06283-5. ISSN 1573-4803. S2CID 235793266. The name "graphite fiber" is sometimes used to refer to carbon fibers or carbon fiber-reinforced polymer. Natural graphite in steelmaking mostly goes into raising the carbon content in molten steel; it can also serve to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Carbon additives face competitive pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to a specified level. An estimate based on USGS's graphite consumption statistics indicates that steelmakers in the US used 10,500 tonnes in this fashion in 2005. [48] Brake linings edit

Purpose of Lubricants

The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner. It stems from γράφειν ("graphein"), meaning to write or draw in Ancient Greek. [9] [56] Delhaes, Pierre (2000). "Polymorphism of carbon". In Delhaes, Pierre (ed.). Graphite and precursors. Gordon & Breach. pp. 1–24. ISBN 9789056992286.

Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness, and inconsistent mechanical properties. Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and then commercialized. [66] [67] Scientific research edit Graphite/Metal Alloy Extends Material Life in High-Temperature Processes". Foundry Management & Technology. 2004-06-04 . Retrieved 2019-06-20. Pierson, Hugh O. (2012). Handbook of carbon, graphite, diamond, and fullerenes : properties, processing, and applications. Noyes Publications. pp. 40–41. ISBN 9780815517399.The most common way of recycling graphite occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes are either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded for reuse, or the electrode (or other materials) are used all the way down to the electrode holder. A new electrode replaces the old one, but a sizeable piece of the old electrode remains. This is crushed and sized, and the resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel.

However, a layered crystal structure alone is not necessarily sufficient for lubrication. In fact, there are some solids with non-lamellar structures that function well as dry lubricants in some applications. These include certain soft metals (indium, lead, silver, tin), polytetrafluroethylene, some solid oxides, rare-earth fluorides, and even diamond.However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At normal temperature and pressure, 20 °C (293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa), the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible. [25] However, at temperatures above about 4500 K, diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at 2000 K, a pressure of 35 GPa is needed. [23] Other properties edit Molar volume against pressure at room temperature Evans, John W. (1908). "V.— the Meanings and Synonyms of Plumbago". Transactions of the Philological Society. 26 (2): 133–179. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-968X.1908.tb00513.x. According to the USGS, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010. [48] Batteries edit